Rust

                  Colors and porous surface texture of rust
                                 Iron–carbon alloy phases
                                           

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                                              Ferrite               
Allotropes of ferrite include:
α-iron (Alpha ferrite)
δ-iron (Delta ferrite)
β-iron (Beta ferrite)
ε-iron (Hexaferrum)

γ-iron (Gamma ferrite)
Austenite (γ-iron + carbon in solid solution)
Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C)
Graphite (allotrope of carbon)
Martensite (metastable phase)
ε-carbon (transitional carbide, Fe24C)
Microstructures
Spheroidite (ferrite with cementite inclusions)
Pearlite (ferrite-cementite eutectoid, 0.8% carbon)
Bainite (transitional microstructure)
Ledeburite (austenite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon)
Tempered martensite (martensite + ferrite + ε-carbon or cementite, or both)
Widmanstatten structures (cementite needles, forms during improper tempering)
Steel classes
Crucible steel (specialty steels)
Carbon steel (≤ 2.1% carbon; low alloy)
Spring steel (low or no alloy)
Alloy steel (contains non-carbon elements)
Maraging steel (contains nickel)
Stainless steel (contains ≥ 10.5% chromium)
Weathering steel (controlled corrosion rate)
Tool steel (alloy steel for tools)
Other iron-based materials
Cast iron (> 2.1% carbon)
Gray iron (hypereutectic cast-iron, contains graphite)
White iron (eutectic or hypoeutectic cast-iron, contains ledeburite)
Ductile iron (black-tempered cast-iron, less brittle)
Malleable iron (white-tempered cast-iron, workable)
Wrought iron (ferrite, contains slag)

Rust

Rust is a general term for a series of iron oxides, usually red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances.[1] Rust consists of hydrated iron(III) oxides Fe2O3·nH2O and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH)3).
Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust and disintegrate. Surface rust is flaky and friable, and provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Many other metals undergo equivalent corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.
Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen – rebar used in underwater concrete pillars is an example – which generates green rust.


Contents
1 Chemical reactions
1.1 Oxidation of iron
1.2 Associated reactions
2 Prevention
2.1 Rust-resistant alloys
2.2 Galvanization
2.3 Cathodic protection
2.4 Coatings and painting
2.5 Bluing
2.6 Inhibitors
2.7 Humidity control
3 Economic effect
4 Gallery
5 Cultural symbolism
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

Chemical reactions

Heavy rust on the links of a chain near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco; it was continuously exposed to moisture and salt spray, causing surface breakdown, cracking, and flaking of the metal.

Oxidation of iron
When impure (cast) iron is in contact with water, oxygen, or other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, the iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of electrochemical reactions. Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a passivation layer, protects the bulk iron from further oxidation. The conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water.
Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water. Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from the surface, fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of the iron is consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, or sulfur dioxide in the system are removed or consumed.

Associated reactions
The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen. The iron is the reducing agent (gives up electrons) while the oxygen is the oxidising agent (gains electrons). The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion of automobiles.
The key reaction is the reduction of oxygen:
O2 + 4 e− + 2 H2O → 4 OH−
Because it forms hydroxide ions, this process is strongly affected by the presence of acid. Indeed, the corrosion of most metals by oxygen is accelerated at low pH. Providing the electrons for the above reaction is the oxidation of iron that may be described as follows:
Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e−
The following redox reaction also occurs in the presence of water and is crucial to the formation of rust:
4 Fe2+ + O2 → 4 Fe3+ + 2 O2−
In addition, the following multistep acid-base reactions affect the course of rust formation:
Fe2+ + 2 H2O ⇌  Fe(OH)2 + 2 H+
Fe3+ + 3 H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)3 + 3 H+
as do the following dehydration equilibria:
Fe(OH)2 ⇌ FeO +  H2O
Fe(OH)3 ⇌ FeO(OH) +  H2O
2 FeO(OH) ⇌ Fe2O3 +  H2O
From the above equations, it is also seen that the corrosion products are dictated by the availability of water and oxygen. With limited dissolved oxygen, iron(II)-containing materials are favoured, including FeO and black lodestone or magnetite (Fe3O4). High oxygen concentrations favour ferric materials with the nominal formulae Fe(OH)3-xOx/2. The nature of rust changes with time, reflecting the slow rates of the reactions of solids.
Furthermore, these complex processes are affected by the presence of other ions, such as Ca2+, both of which serve as an electrolyte, and thus accelerate rust formation, or combine with the hydroxides and oxides of iron to precipitate a variety of Ca-Fe-O-OH species.
Onset of rusting can also be detected in laboratory with the use of Ferroxyl indicator solution. The solution detects both Fe2+ ions and hydroxyl ions. Formation of Fe2+ ions and hydroxyl ions are indicated by blue and pink patches respectively.

Prevention

Because of the widespread use and importance of iron and steel products, the prevention or slowing of rust is the basis of major economic activities in a number of specialized technologies. A brief overview of methods is presented here; for detailed coverage, see the cross-referenced articles.
Rust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer continues to corrode. Rust prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation.

Rust-resistant alloys
See also: Stainless steel and Weathering steelStainless steel forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide. Similar passivation behavior occurs with magnesium, titanium, zinc, zinc oxides, aluminium, polyaniline, and other electroactive conductive polymers.[citation needed]
Special "weathering steel" alloys such as Cor-Ten rust at a much slower rate than normal, because the rust adheres to the surface of the metal in a protective layer. Designs using this material must include measures that avoid worst-case exposures, since the material still continues to rust slowly even under near-ideal conditions.[citation needed]
Galvanization[edit]
Main article: Galvanization


Interior rust in old galvanized iron water pipes can result in brown and black water.
Galvanization consists of an application on the object to be protected of a layer of metallic zinc by either hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating. Zinc is traditionally used because it is cheap, adheres well to steel, and provides cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of damage of the zinc layer. In more corrosive environments (such as salt water), cadmium plating is preferred. Galvanization often fails at seams, holes, and joints where there are gaps in the coating. In these cases, the coating still provides some partial cathodic protection to iron, by acting as a galvanic anode and corroding itself instead of the underlying protected metal. The protective zinc layer is consumed by this action, and thus galvanization provides protection only for a limited period of time.
More modern coatings add aluminium to the coating as zinc-alume; aluminium will migrate to cover scratches and thus provide protection for a longer period. These approaches rely on the aluminium and zinc oxides re-protecting a once-scratched surface, rather than oxidizing as a sacrificial anode as in traditional galvanized coatings. In some cases, such as very aggressive environments or long design life, both zinc and a coating are applied to provide enhanced corrosion protection.
Cathodic protection[edit]
Main article: Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed structures by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electro-chemical reaction. If correctly applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved by attaching a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell formed. The sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative electrode potential than the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium. The sacrificial anode will eventually corrode away, ceasing its protective action unless it is replaced in a timely manner. Cathodic protection can also be provided by using a special-purpose electrical device to appropriately induce an electric charge
Coatings and painting

Main article: Rustproofing


Flaking paint, exposing a patch of surface rust on sheet metal
Rust formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint, lacquer, or varnish that isolate the iron from the environment. Large structures with enclosed box sections, such as ships and modern automobiles, often have a wax-based product (technically a "slushing oil") injected into these sections. Such treatments usually also contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with concrete can provide some protection to steel because of the alkaline pH environment at the steel-concrete interface. However rusting of steel in concrete can still be a problem, as expanding rust can fracture or slowly "explode" concrete from within.
As a closely related example, iron bars were used to reinforce stonework of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, but caused extensive damage by rusting, swelling, and shattering the marble components of the building.
When only temporary protection is needed for storage or transport, a thin layer of oil, grease, or a special mixture such as Cosmoline can be applied to an iron surface. Such treatments are extensively used when "mothballing" a steel ship, automobile, or other equipment for long-term storage.
Special anti-seize lubricant mixtures are available, and are applied to metallic threads and other precision machined surfaces to protect them from rust. These compounds usually contain grease mixed with copper, zinc, or aluminum powder, and other proprietary ingredients.[citation needed]
BluingMain article: Bluing (steel)
Bluing is a technique that can provide limited resistance to rusting for small steel items, such as firearms; for it to be successful, a water-displacing oil is rubbed onto the blued steel.

Inhibitors
Main article: Corrosion inhibitor
Corrosion inhibitors, such as gas-phase or volatile inhibitors, can be used to prevent corrosion inside sealed systems. They are not effective when air circulation disperses them, and brings in fresh oxygen and moisture.

Humidity control
See also: Dehumidifier and Desiccant
Rust can be avoided by controlling the moisture in the atmosphere. An example of this is the use of silica gel packets to control humidity in equipment shipped by sea.

Economic effect

Main article: Corrosion


The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side
Rust is associated with degradation of iron-based tools and structures. As rust has a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent parts — a phenomenon sometimes known as "rust packing". It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support. Rust was also an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed in less than a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on the bridge at the time.


The Kinzua Bridge after it collapsed
The Kinzua Bridge in Pennsylvania was blown down by a tornado in 2003, largely because the central base bolts holding the structure to the ground had rusted away, leaving the bridge anchored by gravity alone.


Rusting rebar has expanded and spalled concrete off the surface of this reinforced concrete support
Reinforced concrete is also vulnerable to rust damage. Internal pressure caused by expanding corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced concrete bridges and buildings.

Gallery

Rusted struts of the 70-year-old Nandu River Iron Bridge

Concentric rust patterns breaking through a painted surface

A leaking water pump caused severe corrosion of this engine block

Badly rusted abandoned railroad coaches in São Paulo, Brazil

Rusted pyrite cubes embedded in a stony matrix

Rusted (and dirt-encrusted) bolt, showing surface pitting and gradual shape deformation

Outdoors "Rust Wedge" display at the Exploratorium shows enormous expansive force of rusting iron

Rusted ship wreck of Maheno in Fraser Island, Australia.

Cultural symbolism

Rust is a commonly used metaphor for slow decay, since it gradually converts robust iron and steel metal into a soft crumbling powder. A wide section of the industrialized American Midwest and American Northeast, once dominated by steel foundries, the automotive industry, and other manufacturers, has experienced harsh economic cutbacks that have caused the region to be dubbed the "Rust Belt".
In music, literature, and art, rust is associated with images of faded glory, neglect, decay, and ruin.

A blacksmith removing rust with sand prior to welding
Corrosion
Cosmoline
Galvanic corrosion
List of bridge disasters
Rustproofing
Stainless steel
Tetanus
Weathering steel